这次总算把高级篇的内容整理出来了, 顺带重新整理了下另外几篇的排版.

在这本书的高级部分主要讨论了之前中级篇中三种复句的简化方法, 以及常用的特殊句型, 比如倒装句的用法.

从句简化通则

省略主语与be动词, 只留补语.

可能面临的问题

  • 1.若省略从属从句的主语会造成主语不清时该如何处理？
  • 2.剩下补语部分如果词类与原来从属从句词类不同时怎么办？
  • 3.连接词是否应一并省略？

为何省略从句主语？

如果从句主语是空的字眼(one,everybody,people等), 或者从句主语在主句中重复出现, 从修辞的角度, 有违精简的原则. 如:

  • It is common courtesy (that one should wear black while one attends a funeral(葬礼).)
    →It is common courtesy to wear black while attending a funeral.

这里one should wear black→[ought] to wear black,去掉主语should变成了不定式.

为何省略be动词？

在简单句的5种基本句型中, 有4种都是通过动词来描述主语在干什么. 如

  • Birds fly.→S+V
  • Birds eat worms.→S+V+O
  • Birds give us song.→S+V+O+O
  • Birds make the morning beautiful.→S+V+O+C

至于S+V+C由于系动词（尤其是be动词）不能描述具体特性, 反而要靠后来的补语来做全部的叙述, 告诉别人主语怎么样. 而be动词只扮演串联主语与补语的角色, 故世称之为系动词. 如

  • Birds are lovely.

试想如果Birds are lovely是一个从句, Birds与主句主语重复, 那么只需留下lovely即可. 而重复的主语与be动词则是多余的.

因此为何省略be动词呢？简单来说就是因为没有具体的含义, 省略不会影响表达.

没有be动词的时候怎么办？

如果没有be动词, 分两种情况处理:

1.有语气助动词时可以变成不定式

这是因为所有语气助动词（情态动词）都可以改写成be+不定式,如

  • You must go at once.
    →You are to go at once.

  • The train will leave in 10 minutes.
    →The train is to leave in 10 minutes.

  • He should do as I say.
    →He is to do as I say.

助动词改写为be加不定式, 表达的意思可能不如原来精准. 这算是为简洁所做的牺牲.

  • He studied hard so that he could get a scholarship.
    could geta→was [able] to get→省略was→to get a scholarship
  • →He studied hard to get a scholarship.

修饰以趋于原意

→He studied hard so as to get a scholarship.
→He studied hard in order to get a scholarship.

2.没有助动词时, 变为ving
如

  • John remembers that he saw the lady before.
    he was seeing the lady before.

→John remembers seeing the lady before.

下面分不同复句讨论如何简化的细节.

关系从句的简化

在前面讨论关系从句的时候也简单讨论过他的简化方法, 即如果关系词充当从句的宾语部分, 则可省略关系词.

  • 1.The man is here.
  • 2.You asked about him.

→The man whom you asked about is here.
简化
→The man you asked about is here.

关系词的省略只能算是一般性的省略, 从句中仍有主语、动词, 所以不算是真正的简化从句. 如果主从句相同, 那么省略主语与be动词就是典型的形容词简化.

以下就简化之后所留下的不同补语分别讨论.

补语为过去分词(ven)

如果关系从句中是被动态, 就会简化成为过去分词的补语部分.

如

  • 1.Beer is most delicious.
  • 2.It is chilled to 6℃.

→Beer which is chilled to 6℃ is most delicious.
简化
→Beer chilled to 6℃ is most delicious.
分词属于形容词类, 词类无冲突.

又如

  • Your brothor John, who was wounded in war, will soon be sent home.

→Your brothor John, wounded in war, will soon be sent home.

补语为现在分词(ving)

如果关系从句中动词是be+ving的形式, 只要省略主语与be动词即可. 如

  • The ship which is coming to shore is from Gaoxiong.

→The ship coming to shore is from Gaoxiong.

补语为to do

如果关系从句的动词有语气助动词存在, 就会成为不定词补语留下来.
如

  • John is the one who should go this time.
    →who is to go
  • →John is the one to go this time.

简化时注意的问题:
1.不定式的主动、被动区分清楚.
2.不定式有无宾语判断.
如

  • 1.This is exactly the thing to do.
  • 2.This is exactly the time to do it.

第一句可视为是:
This is exactly the thing.
We should do the thing.
这两句话的复句简化

第二句可视为是:
This is exactly the time.
We should do it at this time.
复句的简化

3.不定式后有无介词的判断.
如

  • 1.He will be the toughest guy.
  • 2.You must deal with the guy.

→He will be the toughest guy [whom] you must deal with.
→He will be the toughest guy to deal with.

4.从句主语省略意思是否改变
如

  • I have a job that your brother can do.

若省略从句主语, 则变成 I have a job to do. 改变了原意.
这时可以用合适的介词短语插入主语, 如:

  • I have a job for your brother to do.

补语为一般形容词

若关系从句的动词是be动词, 后面是单纯的形容词类做补语, 可以直接简化主语和be动词.
如:

  • Hilary Clinton, who is pretty and intelligent, is a popular First Lady.
    →Hilary Clinton, pretty and intelligent, is a popular First Lady.

形容词一般只有两种位置: 名词短语中及补语位置, 如果两位置都不是, 那么多半是简化形容词从句的残留补语.

补语为名词

依旧只需省略主语与be动词, 让补语名词做同位语. 如:

  • Bill Clinton, who is President of the U.S., is a Baby Boomer.
    →Bill Clinton, President of the U.S., is a Baby Boomer.

名词从句的简化

名词从句与之前所讲的关系从句十分类似, 能够省去从句主语与be动词, 连接词that也可以一并省略. 若名词从句由疑问句演变而来, 以疑问词充当连接词, 那么疑问词需要保留, 因为是有明确意义的字眼.

名词从句简化之后, 剩下来的补语常见有ving与to do（动名词与不定式）皆可作为名词使用, 故词类无冲突. 而如果是动词分词, 就需要在词类上进一步改造.

补语是ving的情况

处理与关系从句完全一样. 如:

  • That I drink good wine with friends is my greatest enjoyment.
    →Drinking good wine with friends is my greatest enjoyment.

换个宾语的例子:

  • Many husbands enjoy that they do the cooking.
    →Many husbands enjoy doing the cooking.

换个介词后宾语的例子:

  • 1.He got used to something.
  • 2.He worked late into the night.

第2句是第1句something的内容, 但由于语法中说that引导的从句不能作为介词宾语, 但可以简化之后再合在一起.

→He got used to working late into the night.

前面说的是一般情况, 有下面几种常见的特殊情况:

主语不能省略时

这种情况一般是主从句主语不一致引起的.

1.试着将整个句子改写成S+V+O+C的句型. 此时需要名词从句在宾语位置, 且主句动词能适用该句型. 如

  • I imagined that a beautiful girl was singing to me.

主从句主语不同, 不能直接省略, 但还是可以省略be动词与that.

→I imagined a beautiful girl singsing to me.

2.使用所有格来处理

  • That he calls my girlfriend every day is too much for me.

这里he同样不能省略, 按照一般的简化流程, calling my grilfriend every day成为主句主语, 没有he的位置了, 此时可以把he变为所有格, 就能放在calling之前.

  • His calling my girlfriend every day is too much for me.

3.加介词来处理
只适合一些比较特殊的句型.

  • I’m worried that my son lies all the time.
    →I’m worried about my son’s lying all the time.
    或

  • →I’m worried about my son lying all the time.

被动态的处理

被动态中省略从句主语与be动词, 剩下动词被动态如改为过去分词是形容词类, 这里需要名词类, 只好另想办法.

  • That anyone is called a liar(说谎者) is the greatest insult.

如果按照之前所说的省略明显不对. 这里需要借用前面的be变成being,起名词的作用, 这里be纯粹只有词类变化的功能.

→Being called a liar is the greatest insult.

有时这里需要把被动动词改成相应动名词.

补语是to do的情况

名词从句的简化, 若从句中有语气助动词, 就会成为不定式. 如:

  • The children expect that they can get presents for Christmas.

简化时先把助动词改写为be to形式. 成为

  • The children expert to get presents for Chrismas.

不定式不一定是什么词类, 可当名词、形容词、副词, 故可不必考虑词类是否符合的问题. 唯一需要注意的是, 不定式不合适放在介词后, 这时需要改为ving形式.

这里同样也会有一些特殊情况.

从句主语不能省略

同样考虑可否变成S+V+O+C句型. 如

  • 1.I want that you should go.
  • →I want that you are to go.
  • →I want you to go.

另外, 在大多情况可以添加介词, 将不能省略的从句主语放在其后. (P.347)

疑问句改造而来的从句简化

其他类似, 只是充当引导词的疑问词不能省略. 如

  • 1.What should I do?
  • 2.I don’t know the puestion.
  • →I don’t know what should I do.
  • →I don’t konw what to do.

如果是一般疑问句, 如

  • 1.Should I vote for Mary?
  • 2.I can’t decide the puestion.

1句中没有疑问词, 需用whether引导.

  • →I can’t decide whether I should vote for Mary [or not].
  • →I can’t decide whether to vote for Mary.

插播 to do与ving的再次比较

前面在讲动状词的时候提到过, to do与ving都可做名词, 因此会用混, 也讲了一些他们的区别, 这里从简化从句的角度再谈谈他们的区别.

  • He forgot that he should see his dentist that day.

根据上面所说, 应简化为:

  • →He forgot to see his dentist that day.

而若原句为:

  • He forgot that he saw the man before.

没有be动词加ing, 简化为:

  • He forgot seeing the man before.

如果判断出名词从句中有不确定语气, 或者能看出原来应有助动词, 那么就能就能简化成不定式.

副词从句的简化

同样, 先在此重复一下重要的观念: 所有从句简化的原则都一样, 即为求精简, 把从句中重复的主语与be动词省略, 只留下补语. 省略主语是为了避免重复, 如果省略会造成句意模糊错误, 主语就要另行处理；省略be动词是因为它本身没有任何意义.

简化为ving补语时

若从句是一般语法书中介绍的进行时, 那么省略主语与be动词后只剩ving补语. 若没有be动词, 也没有语气助动词可供改写, 那只能老办法, 先将从句改成进行时, 再进行简化. 如:

  • While he was lying on the couch, the boy fell asleep.
  • →While lying on the couch, the boy fell asleep.

连接词是否需要省略

连接词有时不光起语法的作用, 还起语义的作用. 副词从句中连接词是否保留取决于修辞上是否清楚.

一般来说, while(包括when)表示“当…时”与because(包括so、since)表示“因为”时, 省略后不妨碍句子的清楚性, 但还是需要一个个句子去判断, 上例中的while便可省略.

知道从句简化, 便知道“分词构句”及传统语法中分词构句的由来. (P.361)
再举个需要改写的例子:

  • Because we have nothing to do here, we might as well go home.

首先观察从句中to do here其实是简化形容词从句来的, 原来是that we can do here修饰nothing.

  • →Having nothing to do here, we might as well go home.

注意, 这种修改并不是以变成进行时为最终目的, 而是为了进行词类变化, 使主语与be动词能够省略.

关于连接词的省略再讨论

这次看看不能省略的情况:

  • Although we have nothing to do here, we can’t leave early.
    →Although have nothing to do here, we can’t leave early.

从句与主句有明显的“相反”的逻辑, 这需要Although才能表现清楚, 因此不宜省略, 这里保留Although仅仅是逻辑关系表达的需要, 当然也可以用其他词代替Although表达的逻辑. 再如:

  • He raised his hand, as if he was trying to hit her.
  • →He raised his hand, as if trying to hit her.

不宜省略as if.

being的运用

在某些需要的场合下, be需要以being的形式留下来. 如:

  • As I am a student, I can’t afford to get married.

按照上面全省略的话, 只剩a student, 读者无法判断这是个简化的副词从句而产生误解, 一个方法是保留连接词. 另一个方法是借用be动词改成being.

  • →Being a student, I can’t afford to get married.

因为有了Being, 能明显判断a student是补语.

兼做介词的连接词before、after、since

  • Before he was in school, he used to be a naughty child.

按以前说的省略后只剩in school,与原意相差很大, 原因在于省略了表示时间关系的before, 但若留下before变成为before in school也有问题, before在简化后会看成是介词, 后面只能接名词类, 因此使用being来进行词类变化, 即:

  • Before being in school, he used to be a naughty child.

before、after、since都兼有连接词与介词, 简化时会被视为介词, 以此进行词类判断.

时态问题

  • After he wrote the letter, he put it to mail.
    →After writing the letter, he put it to mail.

这样简化是可以的, 如果省去After,读者会认为两个动作是同时发生的, 因为没有连接词, 会假设时间副词从句连接词是when. 所以如果要省略After,需要在时态上进行处理.

  • →Having written the letter, he put it to mail.

用完成式与简单式的对比交代写信在前, 其实该简单句也是下面这句的简化.

  • When he had written the letter, he put it to mail.

从中也可以看出, 连接词若是不能表达先后的when, 那么只能靠动词时态来表达.

深入讨论从句主语的去留

再讨论之前, 先谈谈副词从句简化与传统语法中“独立主格”的关系.

  • The child already sleeping soundly in bed, her mother came to kiss her goodnight.

传统语法中把这种保留从句主语的简化副词从句称为“独立主格”结构. 把already sleeping soundly in bed视为形容词短语看待, 修饰the child. 从句主语the child是非主句主语的独立存在, 故传统语法为了解决这个语法现象, 创造“独立主格”的说法.

另一方面, 如果从副词从句简化的角度看, 把从句主语留下来, 是为了保证句子的原意.

那么哪些情况应该保留主语呢？

1.保留主语, 连接词必须要能省略
简化从句一般是省略主语、be动词和连接词（视情况定）. 如果只是省略了be动词, 达不到简化的效果, 反而像是个病句.

2.保留主语, 后面必须配合分词补语（现在分词/过去分词）, 如此才能看出是省略be动词的简化从句.

如上一例The child sleeping soundly说明了the child是主语, sleeping soundly是补语, 省略了be动词与连接词, 形成简化副词从句.

简化为ven时

副词从句中原本是被动时态, 那么在省略后会剩下ven. 如:

  • After he was shot in the knee, he couldn’t fight.
    →Shot in the knee, he couldn’t fight.

老问题 连接词是否能够省略

上栗中的After可以省略, 原因在于shot是过去分词, 本身就表示“已经中枪”、“中枪之后”的完成时的暗示, 因而可以不要After一词.

但如果是Although带有“相反”的暗示, 省去后的意思会与原来有较大差别, 则要保留.

如何应用having been

  • Because they had been warned, they proceeded carefully.

这里动词had been warned有两种处理:

1.为了完整保留完成时“已经”的意味, 将其变为haing been
→Having been warned, they proceeded carefully.

2.另一种是省略had been, 只留warned.
→Warned, they proceeded carefully

因为warned是过去分词, 有完成的暗示, 省略had been影响不大.
总结起来就是, having been后面是动词过去分词, 就能进一步省略having been.

从句主语去留

副词从句简化为ven, 如果从句主语与主句主语不同, 就要把从句主语留下来.

  • When the coffin had been interred, the minister said a few comforting words.
    →The coffin [having been] interred, the minister said a few comforting words.

简化为to do时

  • He studied hard in order that he could get a scholarship.
    →He studied hard in order to get a scholarship.

简化为单纯的be动词时

be动词后是介词短语

  • When you are under attark, you must take cover immediately.
    →When under attack, you must take cover immediately.

be动词后是形容词

  • While it is small in size, the company is very competitive.
    →While small in size, the company is very competitive.

be动词后是名词

  • Although he was a doctor by training, Asimov became a writer.
    →Although a doctor, Asimov become a writer.

稍微总结下, 副词从句的连接词不同于名词从句或形容词从句, 是具有特定语义的连接词, 简化时常选择留下来, 那么它是由副词从句简化而成这一点就十分明显.

再谈连接词的简化

副词从句的连接词有表达某种逻辑关系的意义. 简化时有一种特别的做法, 就是把连接词改为意义相近的介词, 整个从句简化为名词后作为介词宾语.

  • Whe she arrived at the party, she found all the people gone.

与when连接词接近的介词有on和upon. 上面的句子可改写为

  • →Upon arriving at the party, she found all people gone.
  • →Upon her arrival at the party, she found all people gone.

或是

  • When she completed the project, she was promoted.
    →Upon completing the project, she was promoted.

但是这里把动词complete改为名词completion就会有问题, 原因在于这个动词有宾语, 改成名词后, 宾语没地方放了. 也有解决办法, 那就是再加个介词of处理.

  • →Upon completion of the project, she was promoted.

倒装句

这部分内容在书的423页, 主要介绍了倒装句这种特殊结构使用的情况.

倒装句是一种把动词（或助动词）移到主语前面的句型. 从这个定义看, 一般的疑问句都可以算是倒装句.

撇开疑问句这种具有语法功能的倒装句不谈, 比较值得研究的是具有修辞功能的倒装句. 恰当地使用倒装句, 可以加强语气, 增强清楚性与简洁性, 以及更流畅地衔接前后地句子.

以下是几种使用倒装句的条件.

比较级的倒装

  • 1.Girls like cats more than boys.

上面这句话有歧义, 可以有两种意思.

  • 2.Girls like cats more than boys do.
  • 3.Girls like cats more than they like boys.

这是省略不当造成的歧义, 如果想表达2句的意思, 句尾的do不可省. 不然无法判断boys是宾语还是从句主语, 是喜欢猫的人, 还是被喜欢的对象.

  • Grils like cats more than boys, who as a rule are a cruel lot, do.

do放在最后不好, 因为boys与do之间被关系从句阻隔, 而导致表达不清楚, 故使用倒装把do挪到boys之前.

  • Girls like cats more than do boys, who as a rule are a cruel lot.

总结一下, 比较级用倒装需要:

1.从句助动词或do动词不宜省略
2.主语后有较长修饰语

关系从句的倒装

  • 1.The Presidentg is man.
  • 2.A heavy responsibility, whether he likes it or not, falls on him.
    →The President is a man on whom a heavy responsibility, whether he likes it or not, falls.(不好)

介词短语on whom因为内含关系词, 要移到句首位置. 然而一经移动, 产生了和上一例相同的问题. 用倒装处理把动词移到主语前.

  • →The President is a man on whom falls a heavy responsibility, whether he likes it or not.

如此一来, 关系词whom与先行词a man在一起, 在介词on whom与修饰的对象falls在一起, 而动词falls又与它的主语a heavy responsibility在一起, 解决了所有问题. 这便是倒装句的作用. 要注意的是, 关系词必须先向句首移动, 造成顺序反常, 才有倒装的可能.

举个不能倒装的例子:

  • The President is a man who hears a lot of responsibility.

这句话关系从句原来是 He bears a lot of responsibility, he改为who原本就在句首, 没有移动, 也就不能倒装.

假设语气（虚拟语气）的倒装

这种倒装比较单纯. 目的在于加强简洁性.

在假设语气中（往往是if引导的）, 如果有be动词或助动词, 就可以考虑倒装. 做法是把连接词（如if）省掉, be动词或主动词提前取代关系词.

  • If I had been there, I could have done something to help.
    _ →Had I been there, I could have done something to help.

引用句的倒装

在直接引用与间接引用中都可以选择使用倒装来突出引用的内容. 如

  • The police said, “None was killed in the accident.”

引用常出现在宾语位置, 为了突出说话内容使用倒装.

  • →”None was killed in the accident.” said the police.

句尾部分在直接引语时, 主语、动词也可以不倒装, 仍是the police said.

  • The WHO warns that cholera is coming back.

这句话除了可以把整个宾语从句移动到句首外, 还可以只把从句主语移到句首, 加强语气.

  • →Cholera, warns the WHO, is coming back.

类似There is/are的倒装

把地方副词挪到句首, 句型和there is/are很像, 目的在于强调语气, 衔接上下文.

  • There goes the train! 你看, 火车开走了！
  • Here is your ticket for the opera!

衔接例子:

  • To the west of Taiwan lies Southern China.
  • To the east spreads the expanse of the Pacific.

否定副词句首的倒装

如果把否定意味的副词(not、never、hardly)挪到句首来强调语气, 就得使用倒装句.

  • We don’t have such luck every day.

如果想要强调“不是每天”, 而把not every day放句首, 就要用倒装.

  • →Not every day do we have such luck.

又如:

  • I will not stop waiting for you until you are married.

同样如果把not until you are married移到句首强调语气, 就要把will倒装到主语前.

  • Not until you are married will I shop waiting for you.

另外一些表示否定的副词如hardly,barely等用法类似, 移到句首倒装.

  • Hardly had I sat down to work when the phone rang.

  • Hardly anyone knew him.

这句话不必倒装, 因为hardly修饰anyone, 句首是正常位置, 没有移到句首一说.

  • Only I saw him yesterday.

这句也不用倒装only修饰I, 放在I前是正常的.

高级篇就先记到这里.
至此这三篇笔记也整理完毕. 可见整个语法体系中还有不少没有涵盖的内容, 至于要学会解构一个难句子, 唯有进行充分的练习才行, 而这本书更多的是告诉你一些结构的来龙去脉.
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終わり