时间一长就忘了填坑了 O-Q 最近在折腾Mathematica, 被其强大深深折♂服, 有空写写关于学习的感受(无责任挖坑中…)

言归正传, 从中级篇开始将告别简单句引入复合句的概念.

首先区分下书中所述合句与复句的区别.

合句很简单, 两个简单句用and、but等连词连接即作为合句, 两个简单句是并列的关系, 无主从之分, 故也称为对等从句；

复句也可以看成是两个简单句的合体, 但需要把其中的一个简单句改造成名词、形容词、副词等词类, 从而作为另一个简单句的某个句子成分, 根据充当成分的不同, 分成主语从句/宾语从句、定语从句、状语从句等, 因此他们是有主从之分的.

为了与书中保持一致, 这里将采用名词从句、关系从句、副词从句这样的说法(尽管可能之前的分法更耳熟, 但意思都一样）.

名词从句（主语从句/宾语从句/同位语从句）

构造名词从句

疑问句自然也需要分成特殊与一般来考虑, 不过在此之前我还记录了这么几点:

  • 1.在简单句前面加的连接词that没有实际含义, 而只有语法功能, 表示后面是一个名词从句.

  • 2.名词从句在主句中充当名词成分, 作为主语/宾语/补语/同位语.

几个例子:

主语位置

  • 1.Something is strange.
  • 2.He didn’t show up on time.

→(A)That he didn’t show up on time is strange.
→(B)It is strange that he didn’t show up on time.

如果名词从句很长, 避免头重脚轻, 常使用虚词it来填充, 从句后移, 在这里显得突出strange.

宾语位置

  • 1.The defendant said something.
  • 2.He didn’t do it.

→(A)The defendant said that he didn’t do it.
→(B)The defendant said he didn’t do it.

名词从句连接词that因为没有实际含义, 所以有时能够省略. 如果名词从句放在了及物动词的宾语位置, 读者可以清楚看出这是名词从句, 此时便可省略that, 就像上面这个例子一样. 但总的判断原则即省略that后能否再维持原来意思的清楚.

宾语位置使用it的例子

  • 1.I find something strange.
  • 2.He didn’t show up on time.

→I find it strange that he didn’t show up on time.

补语位置

→The car is ruined. The important thing is that we’re all right.
→The car is ruined. The important thing is we’re all right.

名词从句在补语位置时, 只要不会产生断句困难、意思混淆, 就可省略that.

同位语位置

  • 1.I am afraid of that thing.
  • 2.I can’t help you.

→(A)I am afraid of that thing that I can’t help you.
→(B)I am afraid I can’t help you.

I can’t help you加上连接词that成为名词从句, 视为thing的同位语. 这里That thing无实际含义（实际含义在同位语中）, 故介词短语of that thing介词短语可有可无, 可省略. 剩下的that I can’t help you仍视为同位语, that也可省略.

名词从句放大

名词从句放大说的是有时相比于主句, 更想突出从句的内容, 此时可以去掉that, 把从句放最前面.

如:

  • I suppose that this is your last offer?

→This is your last offer, I suppose?

疑问句改造成的名词从句

特殊疑问句

对于特殊疑问句而言, 需用相应的疑问词（who\what\when\how等）引导疑问句.

  • 1.I know the question.
  • 2.Who are you?

→(A)I know who you are.

使用who引导, who are you改写为非疑问句语序who you are.

一般疑问句

一般疑问句选择whether/if来引导. 比较特别的是whether, whether作为一个介词, 不能独立当作疑问词来引导带问号的疑问句, 可是他可以引导代表一个问题的名词从句.

  • 1.I can’t tell which.
  • 2.Either he’s telling the truth or he’s not.

→I can’t tell whether he’s telling the truth or not.

whether可以看成是which与either的合成.

whether与解释为”是否”的if在大多数情况下可以互换, 但在句首位置与介词后只能用whether. 这是因为, 句首的if易误解为”如果”, 至于在介词后接名词短语是合理的, 不适合用连词性的if来接, 而whether是做为代名词类是合理的.

wh-ever这类词在名词从句中的使用

wh-ever一般解释成anyxxx that来引导名词从句.

  • 1.I’ll fire whoever (=anyone that) stole the money.
  • 2.Whatever(=Anything that) he may say won’t be true.
  • 3.Whichever way(=Any way that) you go is fine with me.

副词从句（状语从句）

  • 1.Because he needs the money, he works hard. → 副词从句
  • 2.He needs the money, and he works hard. → 对等从句

副词从句与对等从句的差别是, 对等从句使用对等连接词, 连接之后无主从之分；副词从句则使用从属连接词, because he needs the money成为从属地位的从句, 作为副词使用, 修饰主句动词的原因.

副词从句和名词从句差别表现在

  • 1.连接词: 名词从句用that引导且无具体意义, 副词从句由从属连接词引导且有具体含义, though表让步, because表原因, if表条件.

  • 2.名词从句属于名词类, 放在主语中作名词成分, 也就意味着去掉从句, 主句一般不完整. 副词从句的主句则是完整的句子.

副词从句的种类

副词从句因为结构简单, 因此重点放在各种连接词的选择上.

从句表时间、地方

  • 1.He became more frugal(节俭的) after he got married.
  • 2.I’ll be waiting for you until you’re married.

从句使用现在时, 语气上当成确定的事件来说.

  • 3.It was all over when I got there.
  • 4.A small town grew where three roads met.

从句表条件

  • 1.If he calls, I’ll say you’re sleeping.
    一样的道理, 先让假设成立, 从句使用现在时

  • 2.He won’t have it his way, as long as I’m here.

  • 3.Suppose you were ill, where would you go?

从句表原因、结果

  • 1.As there isn’t much time left, we might as well call it a day.
  • 2.There’s nothing to worry about, now that Father is back.

  • 3.He looked so sincere that no one doubted his story.
    so/such…that…表因果

  • 4.The mother locked the door from the outside, so that the kids couldn’t get out when they saw fire.

从句表目的

  • 1.The mother locked away the drugs so that the kids wouldn’t swallow any by mistake.
  • 2.I’ve typed out the main points in boldface, in order that you won’t miss them.
  • 3.I’ve underlined the key points, lest you miss them.
  • 4.You’d better bring more money, in case you should need it.

从句表让步

  • 1.Although you may object（反对）, I must give it a try.

  • 2.while the disease is not fatal, it can be very dangerous.

  • 3.Wh-ever的连接词, 若解释为No matter…(不论), 就表示让步语气, 引导副词从句. (前面我们说过解释为anyxxx that可以引导名词从句)

  • Whether(=No matter) you agree or not, I want to give it a try.

  • Whoever(=No matter who) calls, I won’t answer.
  • Whichever(=No matter which) way you go, I’ll follow.
  • However(=No matter how) cold it is, he’s always wearing a shirt.
  • Wherever(=No matter where) he is, I’ll get him!
  • Whenever(=No matter when) you like, you can call me.

从句表限制

  • 1.As far as money is concerned, you needn’t worry.
    1. Picasso was a revolutionary in that he broke all traditions.

从句表方法、状态

  • 1.He played the piano as Horowitz(霍洛维茨) would have.
  • 2.He writes as if he is left handed.→真左撇子
    He writes as if he were left handed.→冒充左撇子
    He writes as if he was left handed.→无法判断
    注意as if的用法.

关系从句（定语从句）

关系从句没有经过省略时, 都以形容词从句看待, 有以下特点:

1.组成的两个简单句有交叉部分, 也就是有重复的元素, 并由此建立起”关系”, 这是关系从句的构成条件.
如:

  • For boyfriend I’m looking for a man.
  • He is tall, rich, and well-educated.

2.用关系词（wh-）代替交叉的内容, 让他产生连接词的功能.

如上例把 He → who, 变成who is tall, rich, and well-educated.

  1. 将关系从句附于主句交叉点（名词）后, 作为形容词修饰名词.

即:

  • For boyfirend I’m looking for a man who is tall, rich, and well-educated.

关系代词与关系副词

关于关系代词的省略

  • 1.The man is my uncle.
  • 2.You saw him just now.

→You saw whom just now → whom you saw just now →The man [whom] you saw just now is my uncle.

此处省略whom意思不变, 由于从句中是S+V+C的结构主从句也不会混淆, whom可省略.

  • 1.The man is my uncle.
  • 2.He was here just now. → who was here just now → The man who was here just now is my uncle.

这里如果省略了who会造成断句困难, The man was here 与 is my uncle混杂, 故关系词不可省.
这样总结起来关系词在从句中做宾语的一般可以省略.

  • 1.He is not the man.
  • 2.He used to be the man. → who he used to be. → He is not the man [who] he used to be.

此时who也可省略.

使用关系词that取代who和which的情况

that是借自指示代词, 具有指示的功能. 所以, 关系从句若是有限定范围指示作用, 用that更好. 此类用法多见于下定义的时候. 如:

  • Man is an animal that is capable of reason.

反过来, 不用that的情况就是从句没有限定范围的指示作用, 而只是起补充说明的性质. 特别是用逗号将先行词隔开的用法:

  • 1.For boyfriend, I’m considering your brother John, who is tall.
  • 2.I like Time Classic Words, which many people like too.

称这样的关系从句为”非限定用法”, 在”非限定用法”中, 由于从句与主句断开, 不能利用先行词这个重复点, 故关系词不能省略.

另外, 介词后也不能用that来引导关系从句.

再谈”非限定用法”

  • 1.Shakespeare was born in 1564.
  • 2.Queen Elizabeth I was on the throne then.

这里先行词1564已经是一个明确的年代, 因此从句是补充说明那年有什么特别的事, 而非进一步指示时间, 实则无关紧要. 这种情况, 用逗号将先行词分隔开, 不可省略关系词.

→Shakespeare was born in 1564, when Queen Elizabeth I was on the throne.

关于先行词的省略

要省略先行词, 首先这个先行词得是”空的”, 即没有内容的字眼, 如thing、people等空泛的字眼. 其次, 关系从句与先行词之间不能有逗号断开. 而且, 因为先行词属于重要元素, 所以一旦省略掉先行词, 在关系词部分要有所表示, 大致分这么几种情况:

把关系代词改写为what来表示前面省掉的先行词

  • 1.I have the thing.
  • 2.You need it.

→I have the thing that/which you need.

两种简化方案

  • 3.I have the thing you need. 关系词在从句中做宾语可省略
  • 4.I have what you need. 索性改成了宾语从句

把that改为what, 表示前面有一个省略掉的先行词. 在句型分析时也可以说what you need是名词从句, 作为have的宾语.

把关系词who变成whoever

如果把关系词who变成whoever, 表示先行词不管是谁, 那么就可以省略掉先行词.

  • 1.I’ll shoot any person.
  • 2.He moves.

→I’ll shoot any person who moves.
→I’ll shoot whoever moves.

whoever表示前面省略了一个先行词. 与上例类似, 本质上都是把关系从句转化成了名词从句, 下例也类似.

表示”任意选哪个”的意思, 用whichever来代表先行词的省略

  • 1.You can take any car.
  • 2.You like it.

→You can take any car that you like.
→You can take any car you like.
→You can take whichever car you like.

关于关系从句的位置

一般是放在先行词后, 但总的原则是在不会混淆意思的前提下与其修饰的对象尽量接近, 以增强明确性.

  • 1.There are two apples in the basket.
  • 2.The basket is lying on the table.

→There are two apples in the basket which is lying on the table.

  • 1.You can find two apples8 in the basket.
  • 2.I bought the apple.

→You can find two apples which I bought in the basket.

上句中in the basket是修饰can find, 而两者太远, 易产生歧义, 以为是在修饰bought. 应该改成:

→In the basket you can find two apples which I bought.

使用关系副词

如果关系从句中以副词和主句中先行词重复, 就会改写为关系副词, 关系副词不是名词类, 所以可以自由省略, 除非与关系代词一样被逗号所隔开.

when

  • 1.The rain came at a time.
  • 2.The farmers needed it most then.

→The rain came at a time [when] the farmers needed it most.

a time与then是一个交叉点.

如果认定when的先行词是a time, 那么关系从句形容这个名词, 依旧是形容词类. 这样诠释比较统一, 也比较单纯. 也就是: 在省略之前, 关系从句全都是形容词从句, 两者等价.

where

  • 1.The car stopped at a place.
  • 2.Three roads met there.

→(A)The car stopped at a place [where] three roads met.

how/why

  • 1.Can you show me the way?
  • 2.You pulled off that trick in that way.

→Can you show me the way [how] you pulled off that trick?

再简单谈谈关系副词的省略

上面的栗子中有一句:

  • The rain came at a time [when] the farmers needed it most.

1.at a time与when都是无内容的字眼, 不指明实际的时间

2.at a time与when在一定程度上有重复

故有以下两种省略方式:

→The rain came when the farmers needed it most.
→The rain came at a time the farmers needed it most.

这里我们发现省略at a time后从句变成了由when引导的副词从句了. 再看上面的这个例子:

Can you show me the way [how] you pulled of that trick?

同样的道理, 可以省略the way或how.

→Can you show me how you pulled of that trick?
→Can you show me the way you pulled of that trick?

值得关注的是省略了主句中的名词the way的情况, 此时的how引导的从句应视为how did you pull of the trick?这个疑问句改造而成的名词从句.
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終わり